French

It was not until the aftermath of the Second World War that any more women chemists were appointed to the Chemistry 

Department. The first of these was Cecilie Mary French,59 who was born on 23 October 1915 in London. She was educated at Walthamstow Girls County High School and obtained her B.Sc. in chemistry from UCL in 1937. From 1938 to 1939, French was a Demonstrator in Chemistry at UCL and she also undertook research with Christopher Ingold60 and Cecil Wilson, leading to her Ph.D. in 1940. That year, she took a position as a Research Chemist with Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) Ltd., but later the same year accepted an appointment as Demonstrator and Assistant Lecturer in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry at Bedford College. 

French stayed at QMC for the rest of her life, being promoted to Senior Lecturer in 1961. One of her obituarists, Dorothea Grove (see below), commented about French s teaching  

French was an outstanding University teacher and will be remembered with gratitude by generations of undergraduates in whose welfare she took a keen personal interest. She proved her ability during the difficult post-war [Second World War] years when classes were swollen with ex-servicemen, and for a number of years she was also responsible for teaching the 1st M.B. students of the London Hospital.59(a) 

Despite the heavy teaching load, French maintained an incredible research output. Until a Gouy balance was installed at QMC in 1951, French collaborated with Violet Trew at 

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Discusses the thermodynamic basis for computer calculations for vapor-liquid and liquid-liquid equilibria (in French) computer programs are given. Now out of date. 

This invaluable French-English, English-French dictionary includes both the literary and dated vocabulary needed by students, and the up-to-date slang and specialized vocabulary (scientific, legal, sporting, etc) needed in everyday life. As a passport to the French language, it is second to none. 

The unleaded premium fuels appeared in Europe and France in 1988. In 1993, they represented 40% of the French and 47% of the European Community markets. They are divided into three types. 

These are not official specifications, but rather Quality" levels specified by French automobile manufacturers. 

The Superplus with its RON and MON greater than or equal to 98 and 88 respectively. These two values do not correspond to official specifications but to quality specification sheets drawn up by French auto manufacturers. Strictly according to the rules, Superplus is only a variety of a top quality Eurosuper. 

Note that for certain older engines, small quantities lead deposits from combustion could have a positive effect as a solid lubricant and prevent exhaust valve recession. For these motors which still represented in 1993 from 20 to 30% of the French automotive fleet, the use of unleaded fuel is not possible. 

The necessity of carrying out injection at high pressure and the atomization into fine droplets using an injector imposes very precise volatility characteristics for the diesel fuel. French and European specifications have established two criteria for minimum and maximum volatility therefore, the distilled fraction in volume % should be ... 

The European specifications require a minimum cetane number of 49 for the temperate climatic zones and the French automotive manufacturers require at least 50 in their own specifications. The products distributed in France and Europe are usually in the 48-55 range. Nevertheless, in most Scandinavian countries, the cetane number is lower and can attain 45-46. This situation is taken into account in the specifications for the arctic zone (Table 5.14). In the United States and Canada, the cetane numbers for diesel fuels are most often less than 50. 

The desired improvements are usually on the order of 3 to 5 points, beginning with a base of 45-48. Under these conditions between 300 and 1000 ppm by weight of additive must be used. The treating costs are acceptable, being on the order of a centime (hundredth of a French Franc) per liter. 

This product, given the abbreviation FOD (fuel-oil domestique) in France, still held a considerable market share there of 17 Mt in 1993. However, since 1973 when its consumption reached 37 Mt, FOD has seen its demand shrink gradually owing to development of nuclear energy and electric heating. FOD also faces strong competition with natural gas. Nevertheless, its presence in the French, European and worldwide petroleum balance will still be strong beyond tbe year 2000. 

In 1993, French consumption of these products was around 6 Mt and 2.5 Mt respectively for use in burners and in diesel engines. The latter figure appears in the statistics under the heading, marine bunker fuel . Its consumption been relatively stable for several years, whereas heavy industrial fuel use has diminished considerably owing to the development of nuclear energy. However, it seems that heavy fuel consumption has reached a bottom limit in areas where it is difficult to replace, e.g., cement plants. 

In the industrial combustion sector, for a total French market of 6 Mt in 1993, the distribution between the four product types was as follows f/o ... 

The tendency of the color to become darker with time is often indicative of chemical degradation. The test is conducted with the aid of a colorimeter (NF T 60-104 and ASTM D 1500) and by comparison with colored glass standards. The scale varies from 0.5 to 8. The French specifications stipulate that diesel fuel color should be less than 5, which corresponds to an orange-brown tint. Generally, commercial products are light yellow with indices from 1 to 2. 

The procedure most commonly employed (NF M 07-047 or ASTM D 2274) Is to age the diesel fuel for 16 hours while bubbling oxygen into it at 95°C. The gums and sediment obtained are recovered by filtration and weighed. There is no official French specification regarding oxidation stability however, in their own specifications, manufacturers have set a maximum value of 1.5 mg/100 ml. 

In order to meet French manufacturers fuel quality specifications, a diesel fuel should contain a detergent additive whose effectiveness will have been demonstrated by the procedure described previously. 

The flash point of a petroleum liquid is the temperature to which it must be brought so that the vapor evolved burns spontaneously in the presence of a flame. For diesel fuel, the test is conducted according to a closed cup technique (NF T 60-103). The French specifications stipulate that the flash point should be between 55°C and 120°C. That constitutes a safety criterion during storage and distribution operations. Moreover, from an official viewpoint, petroleum products are classified in several groups according to their flash points which should never be exceeded. 

The French specification for sulfur in all types of gasolines —regular, premium, with or without lead— is 0.1% maximum, that is, 1000 ppm. This value is easily achieved because in the majority of commercial products, the content is less than 500 ppm. 

The ISO 8681 standard, which treats all the petroleum products, groups lubricants, industrial oils and related products in the L Class. The international standard ISO 6743/0, accepted as the French standard NF T 60-162, subdivides the L Class into 18 families or categories. 

Furthermore, each sub-category given in Table 6.2 can be divided according to product viscosities, which are classified in the international standard ISO 3448 (French standard NF ISO 3448, index T 60-141). 

Polyalkylene glycols, particularly polypropylene glycols, represent 17% of French market in 1992. 

In France, bitumen belong to a category of products called "hydrocarbon binders . They are defined and classified in the French Standard, NF T 65000. The hydrocarbon binders comprise ... 

The term bitumen is used in France to designate petroleum products, as in Great Britain and Germany. In the United States on the other hand, the equivalent material is designated by the expression asphalt-cement . In France, asphalt is a mastic, a mixture of bitumen and powdered minerals, poured in place. This mixture can be either natural or reconstituted by an industriai process. Asphait (French meaning) is utilized on roads, particularly in urban centers as well as for sidewalk surfacing. 

Governmental specifications. In France, they are published through inter-ministerial directives and are prepared at the Ministry of Industry by the DHYCA (Direction des Hydrocarbures et des Carburants). They govern the characteristics that products must adhere to in all French territories. 

Table 7.8, which gathers the French government specifications and test methods concerning hydrocarbon solvents, is divided into three parts ... 

Specifications and test methods for heavy fuel oil (in France, FOL). The French specifications distinguish two grades FOL No. 1 and the heavier ... 

There are no French specifications for these products, but there are customs specifications. 

Characteristics for food-grade paraffins Codex test French pharmacopoeia... 

Characteristics of bitumen The characteristics specified in the French standard NF T 65-001 pertain to the ... 

There are no specifications, but there are two French standards grouping the characteristics of bitumen and cutbacks. 

For example, in the case of light Arabian crude (Table 8.16), the sulfur content of the heavy gasoline, a potential feedstock for a catalytic reforming unit, is of 0.036 weight per cent while the maximum permissible sulfur content for maintaining catalyst service life is 1 ppm. It is therefore necessary to plan for a desulfurization pretreatment unit. Likewise, the sulfur content of the gas oil cut is 1.39% while the finished diesel motor fuel specification has been set for a maximum limit of 0.2% and 0.05% in 1996 (French specifications). 

Le Breton, M.D. (1984), Hot and cold fuel volatility Indexes of french cars. A cooperative study by the GFC volatility group . SAE paper No. 84-1386, International fuels and lubricants meeting, Baltimore, MD. 

DHYCA Direction des Hydrocarbures et des Carburants (French Ministry of Industry)... 

In service inspections of French nuclear Pressure Water Reactor (PWR) vessels are carried out automatically in complete immersion from the inside by means of ultrasonic focused probes working in the pulse echo mode. Concern has been expressed about the capabilities of performing non destructive evaluation of the Outer Surface Defects (OSD), i.e. defects located in the vicinity of the outer surface of the inspected components. OSD are insonified by both a "direct" field that passes through the inner surface (water/steel) of the component containing the defect and a "secondary" field reflected from the outer surface. Consequently, the Bscan images, containing the signatures of such defects, are complicated and their interpretation is a difficult task. 

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